A cycle of inquiry is another name for action research. Face validity is important because its a simple first step to measuring the overall validity of a test or technique. Peer-reviewed articles are considered a highly credible source due to this stringent process they go through before publication. While a between-subjects design has fewer threats to internal validity, it also requires more participants for high statistical power than a within-subjects design. The latter is a broader concept than the former. In a cross-sectional study you collect data from a population at a specific point in time; in a longitudinal study you repeatedly collect data from the same sample over an extended period of time. Data cleaning involves spotting and resolving potential data inconsistencies or errors to improve your data quality. Is snowball sampling quantitative or qualitative? How do you plot explanatory and response variables on a graph? Dirty data contain inconsistencies or errors, but cleaning your data helps you minimize or resolve these. These considerations protect the rights of research participants, enhance research validity, and maintain scientific integrity. Why are independent and dependent variables important? Concept - A concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics that are concrete whereas a construct . Data is then collected from as large a percentage as possible of this random subset. Whats the difference between extraneous and confounding variables? What's the difference between concepts, variables, and indicators? What are the requirements for a controlled experiment? Phenomena. In statistical control, you include potential confounders as variables in your regression. Some common approaches include textual analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Probability sampling methods include simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and cluster sampling. While you cant eradicate it completely, you can reduce random error by taking repeated measurements, using a large sample, and controlling extraneous variables. You can keep data confidential by using aggregate information in your research report, so that you only refer to groups of participants rather than individuals. Anonymity means you dont know who the participants are, while confidentiality means you know who they are but remove identifying information from your research report. Constructs are broad concepts or topics for a study. What are the pros and cons of a within-subjects design? It's central to establishing the overall validity of a method. Its a form of academic fraud. This type of validity is concerned with whether a measure seems relevant and appropriate for what its assessing only on the surface. Questionnaires can be self-administered or researcher-administered. Because of this, study results may be biased. A semi-structured interview is a blend of structured and unstructured types of interviews. In non-probability sampling, the sample is selected based on non-random criteria, and not every member of the population has a chance of being included. It always happens to some extentfor example, in randomized controlled trials for medical research. A. phenomenon. Systematic error is generally a bigger problem in research. In restriction, you restrict your sample by only including certain subjects that have the same values of potential confounding variables. In general, you should always use random assignment in this type of experimental design when it is ethically possible and makes sense for your study topic. Youll also deal with any missing values, outliers, and duplicate values. If there are ethical, logistical, or practical concerns that prevent you from conducting a traditional experiment, an observational study may be a good choice. The correlation coefficient only tells you how closely your data fit on a line, so two datasets with the same correlation coefficient can have very different slopes. Construct validity is about the correspondence between concepts (constructs) and the actual measurements. Whats the difference between reproducibility and replicability? Whats the difference between quantitative and qualitative methods? However, it can sometimes be impractical and expensive to implement, depending on the size of the population to be studied. Its a non-experimental type of quantitative research. Explain what a psychological construct is and give several examples. In contrast, random assignment is a way of sorting the sample into control and experimental groups. Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project. In essence, it is an established answer to a research question. Whats the difference between random and systematic error? Constructs: Constructs are measured with multiple variables. Then, you take a broad scan of your data and search for patterns. In matching, you match each of the subjects in your treatment group with a counterpart in the comparison group. Whats the difference between closed-ended and open-ended questions? Dirty data can come from any part of the research process, including poor research design, inappropriate measurement materials, or flawed data entry. Systematic errors are much more problematic because they can skew your data away from the true value. They can be abstract and do not necessarily need to be directly observable. Can a variable be both independent and dependent? Data validation at the time of data entry or collection helps you minimize the amount of data cleaning youll need to do. Samples are easier to collect data from because they are practical, cost-effective, convenient, and manageable. PDF Chapter 5 Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement These types of erroneous conclusions can be practically significant with important consequences, because they lead to misplaced investments or missed opportunities. Concept and theory are two similar words we usually encounter in academics. The term explanatory variable is sometimes preferred over independent variable because, in real world contexts, independent variables are often influenced by other variables. What is the difference between purposive sampling and convenience sampling? Some common types of sampling bias include self-selection bias, nonresponse bias, undercoverage bias, survivorship bias, pre-screening or advertising bias, and healthy user bias. PDF CHAPTER CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS IN RESEARCH distribute The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. A measure with high construct validity accurately reflects the abstract concept that the researcher wants to study. Exploratory research aims to explore the main aspects of an under-researched problem, while explanatory research aims to explain the causes and consequences of a well-defined problem. core constructs. What are the assumptions of the Pearson correlation coefficient? Its essential to know which is the cause the independent variable and which is the effect the dependent variable. There are eight threats to internal validity: history, maturation, instrumentation, testing, selection bias, regression to the mean, social interaction and attrition. What is the difference between criterion validity and construct validity? When designing or evaluating a measure, construct validity helps you ensure youre actually measuring the construct youre interested in. You are seeking descriptive data, and are ready to ask questions that will deepen and contextualize your initial thoughts and hypotheses. 4.1 Phenomena and Theories - Research Methods in Psychology A dependent variable is what changes as a result of the independent variable manipulation in experiments. In general, correlational research is high in external validity while experimental research is high in internal validity. The conceptual framework helps you cultivate research questions and then match . In a factorial design, multiple independent variables are tested. These data might be missing values, outliers, duplicate values, incorrectly formatted, or irrelevant. Because of this, not every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample, giving rise to sampling bias. In contrast, a mediator is the mechanism of a relationship between two variables: it explains the process by which they are related. The two variables are correlated with each other, and theres also a causal link between them. Unlike probability sampling (which involves some form of random selection), the initial individuals selected to be studied are the ones who recruit new participants. In multistage sampling, or multistage cluster sampling, you draw a sample from a population using smaller and smaller groups at each stage. A correlational research design investigates relationships between two variables (or more) without the researcher controlling or manipulating any of them. With random error, multiple measurements will tend to cluster around the true value. Purposive and convenience sampling are both sampling methods that are typically used in qualitative data collection. Guide 3: Reliability, Validity, Causality, and Experiments Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennetts citeproc-js. The research process varies according to fields of knowledge. However, in convenience sampling, you continue to sample units or cases until you reach the required sample size. To use a Likert scale in a survey, you present participants with Likert-type questions or statements, and a continuum of items, usually with 5 or 7 possible responses, to capture their degree of agreement. What is the definition of construct validity? Sampling bias is a threat to external validity it limits the generalizability of your findings to a broader group of people. This means they arent totally independent. The Distinctions Between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and - LWW